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Info file gcc.info, produced by Makeinfo, -*- Text -*- from input file gcc.texinfo. This file documents the use and the internals of the GNU compiler. Copyright (C) 1988, 1989 Free Software Foundation, Inc. Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies. Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also that the sections entitled ``GNU General Public License'' and ``Protect Your Freedom--Fight `Look And Feel''' are included exactly as in the original, and provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to this one. Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions, except that the sections entitled ``GNU General Public License'' and ``Protect Your Freedom--Fight `Look And Feel''' and this permission notice may be included in translations approved by the Free Software Foundation instead of in the original English. File: gcc.info, Node: Passes, Next: RTL, Prev: Interface, Up: Top Passes and Files of the Compiler ******************************** The overall control structure of the compiler is in `toplev.c'. This file is responsible for initialization, decoding arguments, opening and closing files, and sequencing the passes. The parsing pass is invoked only once, to parse the entire input. The RTL intermediate code for a function is generated as the function is parsed, a statement at a time. Each statement is read in as a syntax tree and then converted to RTL; then the storage for the tree for the statement is reclaimed. Storage for types (and the expressions for their sizes), declarations, and a representation of the binding contours and how they nest, remains until the function is finished being compiled; these are all needed to output the debugging information. Each time the parsing pass reads a complete function definition or top-level declaration, it calls the function `rest_of_compilation' or `rest_of_decl_compilation' in `toplev.c', which are responsible for all further processing necessary, ending with output of the assembler language. All other compiler passes run, in sequence, within `rest_of_compilation'. When that function returns from compiling a function definition, the storage used for that function definition's compilation is entirely freed, unless it is an inline function (*note Inline::.). Here is a list of all the passes of the compiler and their source files. Also included is a description of where debugging dumps can be requested with `-d' options. * Parsing. This pass reads the entire text of a function definition, constructing partial syntax trees. This and RTL generation are no longer truly separate passes (formerly they were), but it is easier to think of them as separate. The tree representation does not entirely follow C syntax, because it is intended to support other languages as well. C data type analysis is also done in this pass, and every tree node that represents an expression has a data type attached. Variables are represented as declaration nodes. Constant folding and associative-law simplifications are also done during this pass. The source files for parsing are `c-parse.y', `c-decl.c', `c-typeck.c', `c-convert.c', `stor-layout.c', `fold-const.c', and `tree.c'. The last three files are intended to be language-independent. There are also header files `c-parse.h', `c-tree.h', `tree.h' and `tree.def'. The last two define the format of the tree representation. * RTL generation. This is the conversion of syntax tree into RTL code. It is actually done statement-by-statement during parsing, but for most purposes it can be thought of as a separate pass. This is where the bulk of target-parameter-dependent code is found, since often it is necessary for strategies to apply only when certain standard kinds of instructions are available. The purpose of named instruction patterns is to provide this information to the RTL generation pass. Optimization is done in this pass for `if'-conditions that are comparisons, boolean operations or conditional expressions. Tail recursion is detected at this time also. Decisions are made about how best to arrange loops and how to output `switch' statements. The source files for RTL generation are `stmt.c', `expr.c', `explow.c', `expmed.c', `optabs.c' and `emit-rtl.c'. Also, the file `insn-emit.c', generated from the machine description by the program `genemit', is used in this pass. The header files `expr.h' is used for communication within this pass. The header files `insn-flags.h' and `insn-codes.h', generated from the machine description by the programs `genflags' and `gencodes', tell this pass which standard names are available for use and which patterns correspond to them. Aside from debugging information output, none of the following passes refers to the tree structure representation of the function (only part of which is saved). The decision of whether the function can and should be expanded inline in its subsequent callers is made at the end of rtl generation. The function must meet certain criteria, currently related to the size of the function and the types and number of parameters it has. Note that this function may contain loops, recursive calls to itself (tail-recursive functions can be inlined!), gotos, in short, all constructs supported by GNU CC. The option `-dr' causes a debugging dump of the RTL code after this pass. This dump file's name is made by appending `.rtl' to the input file name. * Jump optimization. This pass simplifies jumps to the following instruction, jumps across jumps, and jumps to jumps. It deletes unreferenced labels and unreachable code, except that unreachable code that contains a loop is not recognized as unreachable in this pass. (Such loops are deleted later in the basic block analysis.) Jump optimization is performed two or three times. The first time is immediately following RTL generation. The second time is after CSE, but only if CSE says repeated jump optimization is needed. The last time is right before the final pass. That time, cross-jumping and deletion of no-op move instructions are done together with the optimizations described above. The source file of this pass is `jump.c'. The option `-dj' causes a debugging dump of the RTL code after this pass is run for the first time. This dump file's name is made by appending `.jump' to the input file name. * Register scan. This pass finds the first and last use of each register, as a guide for common subexpression elimination. Its source is in `regclass.c'. * Common subexpression elimination. This pass also does constant propagation. Its source file is `cse.c'. If constant propagation causes conditional jumps to become unconditional or to become no-ops, jump optimization is run again when CSE is finished. The option `-ds' causes a debugging dump of the RTL code after this pass. This dump file's name is made by appending `.cse' to the input file name. * Loop optimization. This pass moves constant expressions out of loops, and optionally does strength-reduction as well. Its source file is `loop.c'. The option `-dL' causes a debugging dump of the RTL code after this pass. This dump file's name is made by appending `.loop' to the input file name. * Stupid register allocation is performed at this point in a nonoptimizing compilation. It does a little data flow analysis as well. When stupid register allocation is in use, the next pass executed is the reloading pass; the others in between are skipped. The source file is `stupid.c'. * Data flow analysis (`flow.c'). This pass divides the program into basic blocks (and in the process deletes unreachable loops); then it computes which pseudo-registers are live at each point in the program, and makes the first instruction that uses a value point at the instruction that computed the value. This pass also deletes computations whose results are never used, and combines memory references with add or subtract instructions to make autoincrement or autodecrement addressing. The option `-df' causes a debugging dump of the RTL code after this pass. This dump file's name is made by appending `.flow' to the input file name. If stupid register allocation is in use, this dump file reflects the full results of such allocation. * Instruction combination (`combine.c'). This pass attempts to combine groups of two or three instructions that are related by data flow into single instructions. It combines the RTL expressions for the instructions by substitution, simplifies the result using algebra, and then attempts to match the result against the machine description. The option `-dc' causes a debugging dump of the RTL code after this pass. This dump file's name is made by appending `.combine' to the input file name. * Register class preferencing. The RTL code is scanned to find out which register class is best for each pseudo register. The source file is `regclass.c'. * Local register allocation (`local-alloc.c'). This pass allocates hard registers to pseudo registers that are used only within one basic block. Because the basic block is linear, it can use fast and powerful techniques to do a very good job. The option `-dl' causes a debugging dump of the RTL code after this pass. This dump file's name is made by appending `.lreg' to the input file name. * Global register allocation (`global-alloc.c'). This pass allocates hard registers for the remaining pseudo registers (those whose life spans are not contained in one basic block). * Reloading. This pass renumbers pseudo registers with the hardware registers numbers they were allocated. Pseudo registers that did not get hard registers are replaced with stack slots. Then it finds instructions that are invalid because a value has failed to end up in a register, or has ended up in a register of the wrong kind. It fixes up these instructions by reloading the problematical values temporarily into registers. Additional instructions are generated to do the copying. Source files are `reload.c' and `reload1.c', plus the header `reload.h' used for communication between them. The option `-dg' causes a debugging dump of the RTL code after this pass. This dump file's name is made by appending `.greg' to the input file name. * Jump optimization is repeated, this time including cross-jumping and deletion of no-op move instructions. The option `-dJ' causes a debugging dump of the RTL code after this pass. This dump file's name is made by appending `.jump2' to the input file name. * Delayed branch scheduling may be done at this point. The source file name is `dbranch.c'. The option `-dd' causes a debugging dump of the RTL code after this pass. This dump file's name is made by appending `.dbr' to the input file name. * Final. This pass outputs the assembler code for the function. It is also responsible for identifying spurious test and compare instructions. Machine-specific peephole optimizations are performed at the same time. The function entry and exit sequences are generated directly as assembler code in this pass; they never exist as RTL. The source files are `final.c' plus `insn-output.c'; the latter is generated automatically from the machine description by the tool `genoutput'. The header file `conditions.h' is used for communication between these files. * Debugging information output. This is run after final because it must output the stack slot offsets for pseudo registers that did not get hard registers. Source files are `dbxout.c' for DBX symbol table format and `symout.c' for GDB's own symbol table format. Some additional files are used by all or many passes: * Every pass uses `machmode.def', which defines the machine modes. * All the passes that work with RTL use the header files `rtl.h' and `rtl.def', and subroutines in file `rtl.c'. The tools `gen*' also use these files to read and work with the machine description RTL. * Several passes refer to the header file `insn-config.h' which contains a few parameters (C macro definitions) generated automatically from the machine description RTL by the tool `genconfig'. * Several passes use the instruction recognizer, which consists of `recog.c' and `recog.h', plus the files `insn-recog.c' and `insn-extract.c' that are generated automatically from the machine description by the tools `genrecog' and `genextract'. * Several passes use the header files `regs.h' which defines the information recorded about pseudo register usage, and `basic-block.h' which defines the information recorded about basic blocks. * `hard-reg-set.h' defines the type `HARD_REG_SET', a bit-vector with a bit for each hard register, and some macros to manipulate it. This type is just `int' if the machine has few enough hard registers; otherwise it is an array of `int' and some of the macros expand into loops. File: gcc.info, Node: RTL, Next: Machine Desc, Prev: Passes, Up: Top RTL Representation ****************** Most of the work of the compiler is done on an intermediate representation called register transfer language. In this language, the instructions to be output are described, pretty much one by one, in an algebraic form that describes what the instruction does. RTL is inspired by Lisp lists. It has both an internal form, made up of structures that point at other structures, and a textual form that is used in the machine description and in printed debugging dumps. The textual form uses nested parentheses to indicate the pointers in the internal form. * Menu: * RTL Objects:: Expressions vs vectors vs strings vs integers. * Accessors:: Macros to access expression operands or vector elts. * Flags:: Other flags in an RTL expression. * Machine Modes:: Describing the size and format of a datum. * Constants:: Expressions with constant values. * Regs and Memory:: Expressions representing register contents or memory. * Arithmetic:: Expressions representing arithmetic on other expressions. * Comparisons:: Expressions representing comparison of expressions. * Bit Fields:: Expressions representing bit-fields in memory or reg. * Conversions:: Extending, truncating, floating or fixing. * RTL Declarations:: Declaring volatility, constancy, etc. * Side Effects:: Expressions for storing in registers, etc. * Incdec:: Embedded side-effects for autoincrement addressing. * Assembler:: Representing `asm' with operands. * Insns:: Expression types for entire insns. * Calls:: RTL representation of function call insns. * Sharing:: Some expressions are unique; others *must* be copied. File: gcc.info, Node: RTL Objects, Next: Accessors, Prev: RTL, Up: RTL RTL Object Types ================ RTL uses four kinds of objects: expressions, integers, strings and vectors. Expressions are the most important ones. An RTL expression (``RTX'', for short) is a C structure, but it is usually referred to with a pointer; a type that is given the typedef name `rtx'. An integer is simply an `int', and a string is a `char *'. Within RTL code, strings appear only inside `symbol_ref' expressions, but they appear in other contexts in the RTL expressions that make up machine descriptions. Their written form uses decimal digits. A string is a sequence of characters. In core it is represented as a `char *' in usual C fashion, and it is written in C syntax as well. However, strings in RTL may never be null. If you write an empty string in a machine description, it is represented in core as a null pointer rather than as a pointer to a null character. In certain contexts, these null pointers instead of strings are valid. A vector contains an arbitrary, specified number of pointers to expressions. The number of elements in the vector is explicitly present in the vector. The written form of a vector consists of square brackets (`[...]') surrounding the elements, in sequence and with whitespace separating them. Vectors of length zero are not created; null pointers are used instead. Expressions are classified by "expression codes" (also called RTX codes). The expression code is a name defined in `rtl.def', which is also (in upper case) a C enumeration constant. The possible expression codes and their meanings are machine-independent. The code of an RTX can be extracted with the macro `GET_CODE (X)' and altered with `PUT_CODE (X, NEWCODE)'. The expression code determines how many operands the expression contains, and what kinds of objects they are. In RTL, unlike Lisp, you cannot tell by looking at an operand what kind of object it is. Instead, you must know from its context--from the expression code of the containing expression. For example, in an expression of code `subreg', the first operand is to be regarded as an expression and the second operand as an integer. In an expression of code `plus', there are two operands, both of which are to be regarded as expressions. In a `symbol_ref' expression, there is one operand, which is to be regarded as a string. Expressions are written as parentheses containing the name of the expression type, its flags and machine mode if any, and then the operands of the expression (separated by spaces). Expression code names in the `md' file are written in lower case, but when they appear in C code they are written in upper case. In this manual, they are shown as follows: `const_int'. In a few contexts a null pointer is valid where an expression is normally wanted. The written form of this is `(nil)'. File: gcc.info, Node: Accessors, Next: Flags, Prev: RTL Objects, Up: RTL Access to Operands ================== For each expression type `rtl.def' specifies the number of contained objects and their kinds, with four possibilities: `e' for expression (actually a pointer to an expression), `i' for integer, `s' for string, and `E' for vector of expressions. The sequence of letters for an expression code is called its "format". Thus, the format of `subreg' is `ei'. Two other format characters are used occasionally: `u' and `0'. `u' is equivalent to `e' except that it is printed differently in debugging dumps, and `0' means a slot whose contents do not fit any normal category. `0' slots are not printed at all in dumps, and are often used in special ways by small parts of the compiler. There are macros to get the number of operands and the format of an expression code: `GET_RTX_LENGTH (CODE)' Number of operands of an RTX of code CODE. `GET_RTX_FORMAT (CODE)' The format of an RTX of code CODE, as a C string. Operands of expressions are accessed using the macros `XEXP', `XINT' and `XSTR'. Each of these macros takes two arguments: an expression-pointer (RTX) and an operand number (counting from zero). Thus, XEXP (X, 2) accesses operand 2 of expression X, as an expression. XINT (X, 2) accesses the same operand as an integer. `XSTR', used in the same fashion, would access it as a string. Any operand can be accessed as an integer, as an expression or as a string. You must choose the correct method of access for the kind of value actually stored in the operand. You would do this based on the expression code of the containing expression. That is also how you would know how many operands there are. For example, if X is a `subreg' expression, you know that it has two operands which can be correctly accessed as `XEXP (X, 0)' and `XINT (X, 1)'. If you did `XINT (X, 0)', you would get the address of the expression operand but cast as an integer; that might occasionally be useful, but it would be cleaner to write `(int) XEXP (X, 0)'. `XEXP (X, 1)' would also compile without error, and would return the second, integer operand cast as an expression pointer, which would probably result in a crash when accessed. Nothing stops you from writing `XEXP (X, 28)' either, but this will access memory past the end of the expression with unpredictable results. Access to operands which are vectors is more complicated. You can use the macro `XVEC' to get the vector-pointer itself, or the macros `XVECEXP' and `XVECLEN' to access the elements and length of a vector. `XVEC (EXP, IDX)' Access the vector-pointer which is operand number IDX in EXP. `XVECLEN (EXP, IDX)' Access the length (number of elements) in the vector which is in operand number IDX in EXP. This value is an `int'. `XVECEXP (EXP, IDX, ELTNUM)' Access element number ELTNUM in the vector which is in operand number IDX in EXP. This value is an RTX. It is up to you to make sure that ELTNUM is not negative and is less than `XVECLEN (EXP, IDX)'. All the macros defined in this section expand into lvalues and therefore can be used to assign the operands, lengths and vector elements as well as to access them. File: gcc.info, Node: Flags, Next: Machine Modes, Prev: Accessors, Up: RTL Flags in an RTL Expression ========================== RTL expressions contain several flags (one-bit bit-fields) that are used in certain types of expression. Most often they are accessed with the following macros: `MEM_VOLATILE_P (X)' In `mem' expressions, nonzero for volatile memory references. Stored in the `volatil' field and printed as `/v'. `MEM_IN_STRUCT_P (X)' In `mem' expressions, nonzero for reference to an entire structure, union or array, or to a component of one. Zero for references to a scalar variable or through a pointer to a scalar. Stored in the `in_struct' field and printed as `/s'. `REG_USER_VAR_P (X)' In a `reg', nonzero if it corresponds to a variable present in the user's source code. Zero for temporaries generated internally by the compiler. Stored in the `volatil' field and printed as `/v'. `REG_FUNCTION_VALUE_P (X)' Nonzero in a `reg' if it is the place in which this function's value is going to be returned. (This happens only in a hard register.) Stored in the `integrated' field and printed as `/i'. The same hard register may be used also for collecting the values of functions called by this one, but `REG_FUNCTION_VALUE_P' is zero in this kind of use. `RTX_UNCHANGING_P (X)' Nonzero in a `reg' or `mem' if the value is not changed explicitly by the current function. (If it is a memory reference then it may be changed by other functions or by aliasing.) Stored in the `unchanging' field and printed as `/u'. `RTX_INTEGRATED_P (INSN)' Nonzero in an insn if it resulted from an in-line function call. Stored in the `integrated' field and printed as `/i'. This may be deleted; nothing currently depends on it. `INSN_DELETED_P (INSN)' In an insn, nonzero if the insn has been deleted. Stored in the `volatil' field and printed as `/v'. `CONSTANT_POOL_ADDRESS_P (X)' Nonzero in a `symbol_ref' if it refers to part of the current function's ``constants pool''. These are addresses close to the beginning of the function, and GNU CC assumes they can be addressed directly (perhaps with the help of base registers). Stored in the `unchanging' field and printed as `/u'. These are the fields which the above macros refer to: `used' This flag is used only momentarily, at the end of RTL generation for a function, to count the number of times an expression appears in insns. Expressions that appear more than once are copied, according to the rules for shared structure (*note Sharing::.). `volatil' This flag is used in `mem' and `reg' expressions and in insns. In RTL dump files, it is printed as `/v'. In a `mem' expression, it is 1 if the memory reference is volatile. Volatile memory references may not be deleted, reordered or combined. In a `reg' expression, it is 1 if the value is a user-level variable. 0 indicates an internal compiler temporary. In an insn, 1 means the insn has been deleted. `in_struct' This flag is used in `mem' expressions. It is 1 if the memory datum referred to is all or part of a structure or array; 0 if it is (or might be) a scalar variable. A reference through a C pointer has 0 because the pointer might point to a scalar variable. This information allows the compiler to determine something about possible cases of aliasing. In an RTL dump, this flag is represented as `/s'. `unchanging' This flag is used in `reg' and `mem' expressions. 1 means that the value of the expression never changes (at least within the current function). In an RTL dump, this flag is represented as `/u'. `integrated' In some kinds of expressions, including insns, this flag means the rtl was produced by procedure integration. In a `reg' expression, this flag indicates the register containing the value to be returned by the current function. On machines that pass parameters in registers, the same register number may be used for parameters as well, but this flag is not set on such uses. File: gcc.info, Node: Machine Modes, Next: Constants, Prev: Flags, Up: RTL Machine Modes ============= A machine mode describes a size of data object and the representation used for it. In the C code, machine modes are represented by an enumeration type, `enum machine_mode', defined in `machmode.def'. Each RTL expression has room for a machine mode and so do certain kinds of tree expressions (declarations and types, to be precise). In debugging dumps and machine descriptions, the machine mode of an RTL expression is written after the expression code with a colon to separate them. The letters `mode' which appear at the end of each machine mode name are omitted. For example, `(reg:SI 38)' is a `reg' expression with machine mode `SImode'. If the mode is `VOIDmode', it is not written at all. Here is a table of machine modes. `QImode' ``Quarter-Integer'' mode represents a single byte treated as an integer. `HImode' ``Half-Integer'' mode represents a two-byte integer. `PSImode' ``Partial Single Integer'' mode represents an integer which occupies four bytes but which doesn't really use all four. On some machines, this is the right mode to use for pointers. `SImode' ``Single Integer'' mode represents a four-byte integer. `PDImode' ``Partial Double Integer'' mode represents an integer which occupies eight bytes but which doesn't really use all eight. On some machines, this is the right mode to use for certain pointers. `DImode' ``Double Integer'' mode represents an eight-byte integer. `TImode' ``Tetra Integer'' (?) mode represents a sixteen-byte integer. `SFmode' ``Single Floating'' mode represents a single-precision (four byte) floating point number. `DFmode' ``Double Floating'' mode represents a double-precision (eight byte) floating point number. `XFmode' ``Extended Floating'' mode represents a triple-precision (twelve byte) floating point number. This mode is used for IEEE extended floating point. `TFmode' ``Tetra Floating'' mode represents a quadruple-precision (sixteen byte) floating point number. `BLKmode' ``Block'' mode represents values that are aggregates to which none of the other modes apply. In RTL, only memory references can have this mode, and only if they appear in string-move or vector instructions. On machines which have no such instructions, `BLKmode' will not appear in RTL. `VOIDmode' Void mode means the absence of a mode or an unspecified mode. For example, RTL expressions of code `const_int' have mode `VOIDmode' because they can be taken to have whatever mode the context requires. In debugging dumps of RTL, `VOIDmode' is expressed by the absence of any mode. `EPmode' ``Entry Pointer'' mode is intended to be used for function variables in Pascal and other block structured languages. Such values contain both a function address and a static chain pointer for access to automatic variables of outer levels. This mode is only partially implemented since C does not use it. `CSImode, ...' ``Complex Single Integer'' mode stands for a complex number represented as a pair of `SImode' integers. Any of the integer and floating modes may have `C' prefixed to its name to obtain a complex number mode. For example, there are `CQImode', `CSFmode', and `CDFmode'. Since C does not support complex numbers, these machine modes are only partially implemented. `BImode' This is the machine mode of a bit-field in a structure. It is used only in the syntax tree, never in RTL, and in the syntax tree it appears only in declaration nodes. In C, it appears only in `FIELD_DECL' nodes for structure fields defined with a bit size. The machine description defines `Pmode' as a C macro which expands into the machine mode used for addresses. Normally this is `SImode'. The only modes which a machine description must support are `QImode', `SImode', `SFmode' and `DFmode'. The compiler will attempt to use `DImode' for two-word structures and unions, but this can be prevented by overriding the definition of `MAX_FIXED_MODE_SIZE'. Likewise, you can arrange for the C type `short int' to avoid using `HImode'. In the long term it might be desirable to make the set of available machine modes machine-dependent and eliminate all assumptions about specific machine modes or their uses from the machine-independent code of the compiler. To help begin this process, the machine modes are divided into mode classes. These are represented by the enumeration type `enum mode_class' defined in `rtl.h'. The possible mode classes are: `MODE_INT' Integer modes. By default these are `QImode', `HImode', `SImode', `DImode', `TImode', and also `BImode'. `MODE_FLOAT' Floating-point modes. By default these are `QFmode', `HFmode', `SFmode', `DFmode' and `TFmode', but the MC68881 also defines `XFmode' to be an 80-bit extended-precision floating-point mode. `MODE_COMPLEX_INT' Complex integer modes. By default these are `CQImode', `CHImode', `CSImode', `CDImode' and `CTImode'. `MODE_COMPLEX_FLOAT' Complex floating-point modes. By default these are `CQFmode', `CHFmode', `CSFmode', `CDFmode' and `CTFmode', `MODE_FUNCTION' Algol or Pascal function variables including a static chain. (These are not currently implemented). `MODE_RANDOM' This is a catchall mode class for modes which don't fit into the above classes. Currently `VOIDmode', `BLKmode' and `EPmode' are in `MODE_RANDOM'. Here are some C macros that relate to machine modes: `GET_MODE (X)' Returns the machine mode of the RTX X. `PUT_MODE (X, NEWMODE)' Alters the machine mode of the RTX X to be NEWMODE. `NUM_MACHINE_MODES' Stands for the number of machine modes available on the target machine. This is one greater than the largest numeric value of any machine mode. `GET_MODE_NAME (M)' Returns the name of mode M as a string. `GET_MODE_CLASS (M)' Returns the mode class of mode M. `GET_MODE_SIZE (M)' Returns the size in bytes of a datum of mode M. `GET_MODE_BITSIZE (M)' Returns the size in bits of a datum of mode M. `GET_MODE_UNIT_SIZE (M)' Returns the size in bits of the subunits of a datum of mode M. This is the same as `GET_MODE_SIZE' except in the case of complex modes and `EPmode'. For them, the unit size is the size of the real or imaginary part, or the size of the function pointer or the context pointer. File: gcc.info, Node: Constants, Next: Regs and Memory, Prev: Machine Modes, Up: RTL Constant Expression Types ========================= The simplest RTL expressions are those that represent constant values. `(const_int I)' This type of expression represents the integer value I. I is customarily accessed with the macro `INTVAL' as in `INTVAL (EXP)', which is equivalent to `XINT (EXP, 0)'. There is only one expression object for the integer value zero; it is the value of the variable `const0_rtx'. Likewise, the only expression for integer value one is found in `const1_rtx'. Any attempt to create an expression of code `const_int' and value zero or one will return `const0_rtx' or `const1_rtx' as appropriate. `(const_double:M I0 I1)' Represents a 64-bit constant of mode M. All floating point constants are represented in this way, and so are 64-bit `DImode' integer constants. The two integers I0 and I1 together contain the bits of the value. If the constant is floating point (either single or double precision), then they represent a `double'. To convert them to a `double', do union { double d; int i[2];} u; u.i[0] = CONST_DOUBLE_LOW(x); u.i[1] = CONST_DOUBLE_HIGH(x); and then refer to `u.d'. The global variables `dconst0_rtx' and `fconst0_rtx' hold `const_double' expressions with value 0, in modes `DFmode' and `SFmode', respectively. The macro `CONST0_RTX (MODE)' refers to a `const_double' expression with value 0 in mode MODE. The mode MODE must be of mode class `MODE_FLOAT'. `(symbol_ref SYMBOL)' Represents the value of an assembler label for data. SYMBOL is a string that describes the name of the assembler label. If it starts with a `*', the label is the rest of SYMBOL not including the `*'. Otherwise, the label is SYMBOL, prefixed with `_'. `(label_ref LABEL)' Represents the value of an assembler label for code. It contains one operand, an expression, which must be a `code_label' that appears in the instruction sequence to identify the place where the label should go. The reason for using a distinct expression type for code label references is so that jump optimization can distinguish them. `(const EXP)' Represents a constant that is the result of an assembly-time arithmetic computation. The operand, EXP, is an expression that contains only constants (`const_int', `symbol_ref' and `label_ref' expressions) combined with `plus' and `minus'. However, not all combinations are valid, since the assembler cannot do arbitrary arithmetic on relocatable symbols. File: gcc.info, Node: Regs and Memory, Next: Arithmetic, Prev: Constants, Up: RTL Registers and Memory ==================== Here are the RTL expression types for describing access to machine registers and to main memory. `(reg:M N)' For small values of the integer N (less than `FIRST_PSEUDO_REGISTER'), this stands for a reference to machine register number N: a "hard register". For larger values of N, it stands for a temporary value or "pseudo register". The compiler's strategy is to generate code assuming an unlimited number of such pseudo registers, and later convert them into hard registers or into memory references. The symbol `FIRST_PSEUDO_REGISTER' is defined by the machine description, since the number of hard registers on the machine is an invariant characteristic of the machine. Note, however, that not all of the machine registers must be general registers. All the machine registers that can be used for storage of data are given hard register numbers, even those that can be used only in certain instructions or can hold only certain types of data. Each pseudo register number used in a function's RTL code is represented by a unique `reg' expression. M is the machine mode of the reference. It is necessary because machines can generally refer to each register in more than one mode. For example, a register may contain a full word but there may be instructions to refer to it as a half word or as a single byte, as well as instructions to refer to it as a floating point number of various precisions. Even for a register that the machine can access in only one mode, the mode must always be specified. A hard register may be accessed in various modes throughout one function, but each pseudo register is given a natural mode and is accessed only in that mode. When it is necessary to describe an access to a pseudo register using a nonnatural mode, a `subreg' expression is used. A `reg' expression with a machine mode that specifies more than one word of data may actually stand for several consecutive registers. If in addition the register number specifies a hardware register, then it actually represents several consecutive hardware registers starting with the specified one. Such multi-word hardware register `reg' expressions must not be live across the boundary of a basic block. The lifetime analysis pass does not know how to record properly that several consecutive registers are actually live there, and therefore register allocation would be confused. The CSE pass must go out of its way to make sure the situation does not arise. `(subreg:M REG WORDNUM)' `subreg' expressions are used to refer to a register in a machine mode other than its natural one, or to refer to one register of a multi-word `reg' that actually refers to several registers. Each pseudo-register has a natural mode. If it is necessary to operate on it in a different mode--for example, to perform a fullword move instruction on a pseudo-register that contains a single byte--the pseudo-register must be enclosed in a `subreg'. In such a case, WORDNUM is zero. The other use of `subreg' is to extract the individual registers of a multi-register value. Machine modes such as `DImode' and `EPmode' indicate values longer than a word, values which usually require two consecutive registers. To access one of the registers, use a `subreg' with mode `SImode' and a WORDNUM that says which register. The compilation parameter `WORDS_BIG_ENDIAN', if defined, says that word number zero is the most significant part; otherwise, it is the least significant part. Between the combiner pass and the reload pass, it is possible to have a `subreg' which contains a `mem' instead of a `reg' as its first operand. The reload pass eliminates these cases by reloading the `mem' into a suitable register. Note that it is not valid to access a `DFmode' value in `SFmode' using a `subreg'. On some machines the most significant part of a `DFmode' value does not have the same format as a single-precision floating value. `(cc0)' This refers to the machine's condition code register. It has no operands and may not have a machine mode. It may be validly used in only two contexts: as the destination of an assignment (in test and compare instructions) and in comparison operators comparing against zero (`const_int' with value zero; that is to say, `const0_rtx'). There is only one expression object of code `cc0'; it is the value of the variable `cc0_rtx'. Any attempt to create an expression of code `cc0' will return `cc0_rtx'. One special thing about the condition code register is that instructions can set it implicitly. On many machines, nearly all instructions set the condition code based on the value that they compute or store. It is not necessary to record these actions explicitly in the RTL because the machine description includes a prescription for recognizing the instructions that do so (by means of the macro `NOTICE_UPDATE_CC'). Only instructions whose sole purpose is to set the condition code, and instructions that use the condition code, need mention `(cc0)'. `(pc)' This represents the machine's program counter. It has no operands and may not have a machine mode. `(pc)' may be validly used only in certain specific contexts in jump instructions. There is only one expression object of code `pc'; it is the value of the variable `pc_rtx'. Any attempt to create an expression of code `pc' will return `pc_rtx'. All instructions that do not jump alter the program counter implicitly by incrementing it, but there is no need to mention this in the RTL. `(mem:M ADDR)' This RTX represents a reference to main memory at an address represented by the expression ADDR. M specifies how large a unit of memory is accessed. File: gcc.info, Node: Arithmetic, Next: Comparisons, Prev: Regs and Memory, Up: RTL RTL Expressions for Arithmetic ============================== `(plus:M X Y)' Represents the sum of the values represented by X and Y carried out in machine mode M. This is valid only if X and Y both are valid for mode M. `(minus:M X Y)' Like `plus' but represents subtraction. `(compare X Y)' Represents the result of subtracting Y from X for purposes of comparison. The absence of a machine mode in the `compare' expression indicates that the result is computed without overflow, as if with infinite precision. Of course, machines can't really subtract with infinite precision. However, they can pretend to do so when only the sign of the result will be used, which is the case when the result is stored in `(cc0)'. And that is the only way this kind of expression may validly be used: as a value to be stored in the condition codes. `(neg:M X)' Represents the negation (subtraction from zero) of the value represented by X, carried out in mode M. X must be valid for mode M. `(mult:M X Y)' Represents the signed product of the values represented by X and Y carried out in machine mode M. If X and Y are both valid for mode M, this is ordinary size-preserving multiplication. Alternatively, both X and Y may be valid for a different, narrower mode. This represents the kind of multiplication that generates a product wider than the operands. Widening multiplication and same-size multiplication are completely distinct and supported by different machine instructions; machines may support one but not the other. `mult' may be used for floating point multiplication as well. Then M is a floating point machine mode. `(umult:M X Y)' Like `mult' but represents unsigned multiplication. It may be used in both same-size and widening forms, like `mult'. `umult' is used only for fixed-point multiplication. `(div:M X Y)' Represents the quotient in signed division of X by Y, carried out in machine mode M. If M is a floating-point mode, it represents the exact quotient; otherwise, the integerized quotient. If X and Y are both valid for mode M, this is ordinary size-preserving division. Some machines have division instructions in which the operands and quotient widths are not all the same; such instructions are represented by `div' expressions in which the machine modes are not all the same. `(udiv:M X Y)' Like `div' but represents unsigned division. `(mod:M X Y)' `(umod:M X Y)' Like `div' and `udiv' but represent the remainder instead of the quotient. `(not:M X)' Represents the bitwise complement of the value represented by X, carried out in mode M, which must be a fixed-point machine mode. x must be valid for mode M, which must be a fixed-point mode. `(and:M X Y)' Represents the bitwise logical-and of the values represented by X and Y, carried out in machine mode M. This is valid only if X and Y both are valid for mode M, which must be a fixed-point mode. `(ior:M X Y)' Represents the bitwise inclusive-or of the values represented by X and Y, carried out in machine mode M. This is valid only if X and Y both are valid for mode M, which must be a fixed-point mode. `(xor:M X Y)' Represents the bitwise exclusive-or of the values represented by X and Y, carried out in machine mode M. This is valid only if X and Y both are valid for mode M, which must be a fixed-point mode. `(lshift:M X C)' Represents the result of logically shifting X left by C places. X must be valid for the mode M, a fixed-point machine mode. C must be valid for a fixed-point mode; which mode is determined by the mode called for in the machine description entry for the left-shift instruction. For example, on the Vax, the mode of C is `QImode' regardless of M. On some machines, negative values of C may be meaningful; this is why logical left shift and arithmetic left shift are distinguished. For example, Vaxes have no right-shift instructions, and right shifts are represented as left-shift instructions whose counts happen to be negative constants or else computed (in a previous instruction) by negation. `(ashift:M X C)' Like `lshift' but for arithmetic left shift. `(lshiftrt:M X C)' `(ashiftrt:M X C)' Like `lshift' and `ashift' but for right shift. `(rotate:M X C)' `(rotatert:M X C)' Similar but represent left and right rotate. `(abs:M X)' Represents the absolute value of X, computed in mode M. X must be valid for M. `(sqrt:M X)' Represents the square root of X, computed in mode M. X must be valid for M. Most often M will be a floating point mode. `(ffs:M X)' Represents the one plus the index of the least significant 1-bit in X, represented as an integer of mode M. (The value is zero if X is zero.) The mode of X need not be M; depending on the target machine, various mode combinations may be valid. File: gcc.info, Node: Comparisons, Next: Bit Fields, Prev: Arithmetic, Up: RTL Comparison Operations ===================== Comparison operators test a relation on two operands and are considered to represent the value 1 if the relation holds, or zero if it does not. The mode of the comparison is determined by the operands; they must both be valid for a common machine mode. A comparison with both operands constant would be invalid as the machine mode could not be deduced from it, but such a comparison should never exist in RTL due to constant folding. Inequality comparisons come in two flavors, signed and unsigned. Thus, there are distinct expression codes `gt' and `gtu' for signed and unsigned greater-than. These can produce different results for the same pair of integer values: for example, 1 is signed greater-than -1 but not unsigned greater-than, because -1 when regarded as unsigned is actually `0xffffffff' which is greater than 1. The signed comparisons are also used for floating point values. Floating point comparisons are distinguished by the machine modes of the operands. The comparison operators may be used to compare the condition codes `(cc0)' against zero, as in `(eq (cc0) (const_int 0))'. Such a construct actually refers to the result of the preceding instruction in which the condition codes were set. The above example stands for 1 if the condition codes were set to say ``zero'' or ``equal'', 0 otherwise. Although the same comparison operators are used for this as may be used in other contexts on actual data, no confusion can result since the machine description would never allow both kinds of uses in the same context. `(eq X Y)' 1 if the values represented by X and Y are equal, otherwise 0. `(ne X Y)' 1 if the values represented by X and Y are not equal, otherwise 0. `(gt X Y)' 1 if the X is greater than Y. If they are fixed-point, the comparison is done in a signed sense. `(gtu X Y)' Like `gt' but does unsigned comparison, on fixed-point numbers only. `(lt X Y)' `(ltu X Y)' Like `gt' and `gtu' but test for ``less than''. `(ge X Y)' `(geu X Y)' Like `gt' and `gtu' but test for ``greater than or equal''. `(le X Y)' `(leu X Y)' Like `gt' and `gtu' but test for ``less than or equal''. `(if_then_else COND THEN ELSE)' This is not a comparison operation but is listed here because it is always used in conjunction with a comparison operation. To be precise, COND is a comparison expression. This expression represents a choice, according to COND, between the value represented by THEN and the one represented by ELSE. On most machines, `if_then_else' expressions are valid only to express conditional jumps. File: gcc.info, Node: Bit Fields, Next: Conversions, Prev: Comparisons, Up: RTL Bit-fields ========== Special expression codes exist to represent bit-field instructions. These types of expressions are lvalues in RTL; they may appear on the left side of a assignment, indicating insertion of a value into the specified bit field. `(sign_extract:SI LOC SIZE POS)' This represents a reference to a sign-extended bit-field contained or starting in LOC (a memory or register reference). The bit field is SIZE bits wide and starts at bit POS. The compilation option `BITS_BIG_ENDIAN' says which end of the memory unit POS counts from. Which machine modes are valid for LOC depends on the machine, but typically LOC should be a single byte when in memory or a full word in a register. `(zero_extract:SI LOC SIZE POS)' Like `sign_extract' but refers to an unsigned or zero-extended bit field. The same sequence of bits are extracted, but they are filled to an entire word with zeros instead of by sign-extension.